TWAP VOLUME 5 OPEN OCEAN

xvi 138 141 143 147 157 179 181 182 185 185 227 244 266 267 267 293 293 316 325 326 TWAP Acronyms TRANSBOUNDARY WATERS ASSESSMENT PROGRAMME General ASCOBANS Agreement on the Conservation of Small Cetaceans in the Baltic, North East Atlantic, Irish and North Seas GEOSS Data-CORE GEOSS Data Collection of Open Resources for Everyone IT Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission PML Plymouth Marine Laboratory ABNJ areas beyond national jurisdiction ACCOBAMS Agreement on the Conservation of Cetaceans in the Black Sea Mediterranean Sea and Contiguous Atlantic Area AIMS Australian Institute of Marine Science AOSIS Alliance of Small Island States APEC-OFWG Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) Oceans and Fisheries Working Group (OFWG) ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations AWNJ Areas within national jurisdiction BBNJ UN Working Group on Marine Biodiversity beyond Areas of National Jurisdiction BCC Benguela Current Commission BIMSTEC Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC) Working Committee on Fisheries BON Biodiversity Observation Network CalCOFI California Cooperative Oceanic Fisheries Investigations CARICOM Caribbean Community and Common Market CARPHA Caribbean Public Health Agency CBD Convention on Biological Diversity CBSS Council of the Baltic Sea States CCAD La Comisión Centroamericana de Ambiente y Desarrollo CERMES Centre for Resource Management and Environmental Studies, University of the West Indies CIESIN Center for International Earth Science Information Network CMAP Center for Marine Assessment and Planning CMIP5 Coupled Model Inter-comparison Project Phase 5 CO2 Carbon dioxide xvii THE OPEN OCEAN: STATUS AND TRENDS COBSEA COFI FAO Committee on Fisheries COREP Convention Concerning the Regional Development of Fisheries in the Gulf of Guinea and the Regional Fisheries Committee for the Gulf of Guinea (COREP) CPPS Permanent Commission of the South Pacific CRFM Agreement establishing the Caribbean Regional Fisheries Mechanism (CRFM) CROP Council of Regional Organisations of the Pacific CSW Catalogue Service for the Web DDT Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane DHM Digital Height Model DIN Dissolved Inorganic Nitrogen DPSIR Drivers-pressures-state-impact-response Dugong MOU Memorandum of Understanding on the Conservation and Management of Dugongs and their Habitats throughout their Range EBSAs Ecologically and Biologically Significant Areas EBVs Essential Biodiversity Variables ECVs Essential Climate Variables eEOVs ecosystem Essential Ocean Variables eEOVs ecosystem Essential Ocean Variables EEZs Exclusive Economic Zone EO Earth Observations EOS Essential Ocean Samples EOVs Essential Ocean Variables ESA European Space Agency ESGF Earth System Grid Federation EU Maritime Policy European Union Integrated Maritime Policy EU-CFP European Union Common Fisheries Policy EuroGOOS The European GOOS EVs Essential Variables FAO Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations FAO UN Food and Agricultural Organisation FAQ Frequently Asked Questions FCWC Convention for the establishment of Fishery Committee of the West Central Gulf of Guinea FiB Fishing in Balance Index FOO xviii Coordinating Body on the Seas of East Asia Framework for Ocean Observing ACRONYMS FP7 EC Seventh Framework Programme of the European Commission GACS Global Alliance of Continuous Plankton Recorder Surveys GCI GEOSS Common Infrastructure GCOS Global Climate Observing System GDP Gross Domestic Product GEF Global Environment Facility GEO Group on Earth Observations GEOBON Group on Earth Observations Biodiversity Observation Network GEOSS Global Earth Observation System of Systems GEOSS DataCORE GEOSS Data Collection of Open Resources for Everyone GEOWOW GEOSS interoperability for Weather, Ocean and Water GESAMP Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Environmental Protection GIS Geographic Information System GOODS Global Open Oceans and Deep Seabed GOOS Global Ocean Observing System GRA GOOS Regional Alliances HABs Harmful Algal Blooms HCH Hexachlorocyclohexanes HELCOM Baltic Marine Environment Protection Commission IAEA International Atomic Energy Agency IASC International Arctic Science Committee ICEP Indicator for Coastal Eutrophication Potential ICES International Council for the Exploration of the Sea ICSU International Council for Science IGBP International Geosphere Biosphere Programme IMO International maritime Organisation IMOS Australian Integrated Marine Observing System IOC Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission IOC Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission IOCCG International Ocean Colour Co-ordinating Group IOCCP International Ocean Carbon Coordination Project IODE International Oceanographic Data and Information Exchange IOSEA The Memorandum of Understanding on the Conservation and Management of Marine Turtles and their Habitats of the Indian Ocean and South-East Asia IPBES Intergovernmental Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change xix THE OPEN OCEAN: STATUS AND TRENDS ISO LME Large Marine Ecosystems MAP Marine Affairs Programme, Dalhousie University MEA Millennium Ecosystem Assessment MEPC IMO Marine Environmental Protection Committee MPAs Marine Protected Areas MTI Marine Trophic Index MTL Mean Trophic Level NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration of the US Government NOAA US Government National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration NOC National Oceanography Centre of the UK NODC US Government National Oceanographic Data Center NOWPAP North West Pacific Action Plan NOWPAP Action Plan for the Protection, Management and Development of the Marine and Coastal Environment of the Northwest Pacific Region NSIDC US National Snow and Ice Data Center O2 Oxygen OBIS Ocean Biogeographical Information System OC–CCI Ocean Colour Climate Change Initiative OECS Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States OGC Open Geospatial Consortium OLDEPESCA Agreement instituting the Latin American Organization for Fisheries Development OSPESCA Central America Fisheries and Aquaculture Organization PCB Polychlorinated Biphenyls PEMSEA Partnerships in Environmental Management for the Seas of East Asia PICES North Pacific Marine Science Organization PICO GOOS Panel for Integrated Coastal Observation PIF Pacific Islands Forum PML Plymouth Marine Laboratory POPs Persistent Organic Pollutants PRCM Regional Marine and Coastal Conservation Programme for West Africa RACMED Regional Advisory Council for the Mediterranean RCP Representative Concentration Pathway Scenarios RECOFI Agreement for the establishment of the Regional Commission for Fisheries SAARC South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation SACEP xx International Organisation for Standardisation South Asian Cooperative Environment Programme ACRONYMS SADC South African Development Community SBAs Societal Benefit Areas SBSTA UNFCC Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice SCOR Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research SEA Sea Education Association SEO Search Engine Optimisation SICA Sistema de la Integración Centroamericana SIDS Small Island Developing States SLD Styled Layer Descriptor SOCAT Surface Ocean CO2 Atlas SOKI Southern Ocean Knowledge and Information wiki SOOS Southern Ocean Observing System SOPAC Pacific Islands Applied GeoScience Commission SPAW Protocol Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife Protocol, Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region SPTO South Pacific Tourism Organisation SRES Special Report Emission Scenario SRFC Sub-Regional Fisheries Commission SST Sea Surface Temperature TCHP Tropical Cyclone Heat Potential TWAP Transboundary Waters Assessment Programme UNCLOS United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea UNEP United Nations Environment Programme UNESCO United Nations Education, Science and Cultural Organization UNESCO-IOC Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO UNFCCC UN Framework Convention on Climate Change URL Universal Resource Locator URL Universal Resource Locator US IOOS United States Integrated Ocean Observing System US NMFS-NOAA United States National Marine Fisheries Service of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration USP University of the South Pacific VOS Volunteer Observing Ships WCRP World Climate Research Programme WCS Web Coverage Service WHO World Health Organisation xxi THE OPEN OCEAN: STATUS AND TRENDS WIOSEA Western Indian Ocean Sustainable Ecosystem Alliance WMO World Meteorological Organisation WMS Web Map Service WOA World Ocean Assessment Governance (CN = constituting, OP = operational, P = pollution, F = Fisheries, B = biodiversity, C = climate change Abidjan Convention CN P Abidjan Convention Emergency Protocol Protocol on Cooperation in Combating Pollution in Cases of Emergency and the associated Action Plan for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment and Coastal Areas of the West and Central African Region OP P Abidjan Convention LBS Protocol Protocol concerning Cooperation in the Protection and Development of the Marine and Coastal Environment from landBased Sources and the Activities OP P ACAP Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels OP B Anti-fouling convention The International Convention on the Control of Harmful Antifouling Systems on Ships OP P Antigua Convention Convention for Cooperation in the Protection and Sustainable Development of the Marine and Coastal Environment of the Northeast Pacific CN FPB APFIC Asia Pacific Fisheries Commission OP F Arctic Council Arctic Council OP FPBC ATS Antarctic Treaty System CN FP ATS Environment Protocol Protocol on Environmental Protection to The Antarctic Treaty OP P Barcelona Convention Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment and the Coastal Region of the Mediterranean CN P Barcelona Convention Dumping Protocol Protocol for the Prevention of Pollution in the Mediterranean Sea by Dumping from Ships and Aircraft OP P Barcelona Convention Hazardous Wastes Protocol Protocol on the Prevention of Pollution of the Mediterranean Sea by Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal OP P Barcelona Convention - LBS Protocol Protocol on the Protection of the Mediterranean Sea against Pollution from Land-Based Sources OP P Barcelona Convention Offshore Protocol xxii Abidjan Convention for Co-operation in the protection and Development of the Marine and Coastal Environment of the West and Central African Region Protocol for the Protection of the Mediterranean Sea against Pollution Resulting from Exploration and Exploitation of the Continental Shelf and the Seabed and its Subsoil OP P ACRONYMS (CN = constituting, OP = operational, P = pollution, F = Fisheries, B = biodiversity, C = climate change Barcelona Convention Prevention and Emergency Protocol Protocol Concerning Cooperation in Preventing Pollution from Ships and, in Cases of Emergency, Combating Pollution of the Mediterranean Sea OP P Barcelona Convention - SPA and Biodiversity Protocol Protocol Concerning Specially Protected Areas and Biological Diversity in the Mediterranean OP B BOBP-IGO Agreement Agreement on the Institutionalisation of the Bay of Bengal Programme as an Inter-Governmental Organisation OP F Bucharest Convention Convention on the Protection of the Black Sea against Pollution CN P Bucharest Convention Dumping protocol Protocol on dumping of waste OP P Bucharest Convention Emergency Protocol Protocol on joint action in the case of accidents (such as oil spills) OP P Bucharest Convention - LBS Protocol Protocol on the control of land-based sources of pollution OP P BWMC International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships’ Ballast Water and Sediments (Ballast Water Management Convention) OP P Cartagena Convention Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region (Cartagena Convention) CN P Cartagena Convention - LBS Protocol Cartagena Convention Protocol Concerning Pollution from LandBased Sources and Activities OP P Cartagena Convention – Oil Spills Protocol Cartagena Convention Protocol Concerning Co-operation in Combating Oil Spills OP P CBD Convention on Biological Diversity CN B CCAMLR Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources OP FB CCAS Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals OP B CCBSP Convention on the Conservation and Management of Pollock Resources in the Central Bering Sea OP F CCSBT Convention for the Conservation of the Southern Bluefin Tuna OP F CECAF Fishery Committee for the Eastern Central Atlantic OP F CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species OP FB CMS Convention on Migratory Species CN FB COMHAFAT Ministerial Conference on Fisheries Cooperation among African States Bordering the Atlantic (COMHAFAT or ATLAFCO) OP F xxiii THE OPEN OCEAN: STATUS AND TRENDS (CN = constituting, OP = operational, P = pollution, F = Fisheries, B = biodiversity, C = climate change FAO Compliance Convention OP F FFAC Pacific Islands Forum Fisheries Agency/South Pacific Forum Fisheries Agency Convention OP F GFCM Agreement Agreement for the establishment of the General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean OP F GPA Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-based Activities CN P HELCON Convention on the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea Area - Helsinki Convention OP PB Hong Kong Convention Hong Kong International Convention for the Safe and Environmentally Sound Recycling of Ships OP P HSDN United Nations Resolution on High Seas Drift Netting OP F IAC Inter-American Convention for the Protection and Conservation of Sea Turtles OP B IATTC Convention for the Strengthening of the Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission OP F ICCAT International Convention for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas OP F ICES International Council for the Exploration of the Sea OP FPBC IOTC Agreement for the establishment of the Indian Ocean Tuna Commission OP F IPHC International Pacific Halibut Commission (IPHC)/Convention for the Preservation of the Halibut Fishery OP F IWC International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling OP F Jeddah Convention Regional Convention for the Conservation of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Environment CN P Jeddah LBS Protocol Protocol Concerning the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-Based Activities in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden OP P Jeddah Oil Pollution Protocol Protocol concerning Regional Cooperation in Combating Pollution by Oil and Other Harmful Substances in cases of Emergency OP P Kuwait - Continental Shelf Exploitation Protocol Protocol Concerning Marine Pollution Resulting from Exploration and Exploitation of the Continental Shelf OP P Kuwait Convention Regional Convention for Cooperation on the Protection of the Marine Environment from Pollution – Kuwait Convention CN P Kuwait Convention Hazardous Wastes Protocol Protocol on the Control of Marine transboundary movements and disposal of hazardous wastes and other wastes, 1998 OP P Kuwait Convention LBS Protocol Regional Convention for Cooperation on the Protection of the Marine Environment from Pollution – Kuwait Convention OP P Kuwait Convention Oil Spills Protocol Protocol concerning regional cooperation in combating pollution by oil and other harmful substances in cases of emergency, 1978 OP P Lima Convention xxiv The Agreement to Promote Compliance with International Conservation and Management Measures by Fishing Vessels on the High Seas - 1993 Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment and Coastal Areas of the South-East Pacific CN P ACRONYMS (CN = constituting, OP = operational, P = pollution, F = Fisheries, B = biodiversity, C = climate change Lima Convention Hydrocarbons Protocol Lima Agreement on Regional Cooperation in Combating Pollution in the South East Pacific by Hydrocarbons and other Harmful Substances in cases of Emergency OP P Lima Convention LBS Protocol Lima Protocol for the Protection of the South East Pacific Against Pollution from Land- Based Sources OP P Lima Convention Radioactive Pollution Protocol Lima Protocol for the Protection of the South East Pacific from Radioactive Pollution OP P London Convention London Convention (1975) OP P London Convention Protocol London Convention Protocol (2006) OP PC MARPOL International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) Annexes I - VI OP P Montreal Protocol The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer OP P NAFO Convention on Future Multilateral Cooperation in the Northwest Atlantic Fisheries OP F Nairobi Convention Nairobi Convention for the Protection, Management and Development of the Marine and Coastal Environment of the West Indian Ocean CN P Nairobi Convention Emergency Protocol Protocol Concerning Co-operation in Combating Marine Pollution in Cases of Emergency in the Eastern African Region OP P Nairobi Convention LBS Protocol Protocol for the Protection of the Marine and Coastal Environment of the Western Indian Ocean from Land-Based Sources and Activities OP P NAMMCO Agreement on Cooperation in Research, Conservation and Management of Marine Mammals in the North Atlantic OP FB NASCO Convention for the Conservation of Salmon in the North Atlantic Ocean OP F NEAFC North-East Atlantic Fisheries Commission OP F Niue Treaty/NTSA Niue Treaty on Cooperation in Fisheries Surveillance and Law Enforcement in the South Pacific Region and Multilateral NTSA Agreement on Strengthening Implementation of the Niue Treaty OP F Noumea Convention Convention for the Protection of the Natural Resources and Environment of the South Pacific CN PBC Noumea Convention Dumping Protocol Protocol for the Prevention of Pollution of the South Pacific Region by Dumping OP P Noumea Convention Emergency Protocol Protocol Concerning Co-operation in Combating Pollution Emergencies in the South Pacific Region OP P NPAFC Convention for the Conservation of Anadromous Stocks in The North Pacific Ocean OP F OPRC 90 International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Co-operation 1990 OP P xxv THE OPEN OCEAN: STATUS AND TRENDS (CN = constituting, OP = operational, P = pollution, F = Fisheries, B = biodiversity, C = climate change OSPAR Convention OP BP PICES The North Pacific Marine Science Organization OP FPBC PIF/POF/PIROP Pacific Islands Forum/Pacific Oceanspace Framework/Pacific Islands Regional Oceans Policy OP FPBC PNA Nauru Agreement Concerning Cooperation in the Management of Fisheries of Common Interest OP F Polar Bear Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears OP B PSC Treaty Between the Government of the United States of America and the Government of Canada concerning Pacific Salmon OP F SCAR Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research OP FPBC SEAFDEC South East Asian Fisheries Development Center OP F SEAFO The Convention on the Conservation and Management of Fishery Resources in the South East Atlantic Ocean OP FB SIOFA South Indian Ocean Fisheries Agreement OP FB SPC Secretariat of the Pacific Community (initially South Pacific Commission) OP F SPRFMO Convention on the Conservation and Management of High Seas Fishery Resources in the South Pacific Ocean OP F Stockholm Convention Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants OP P UNCLOS United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea CN FPB UNCLOS – Seabed Agreement Agreement relating to the implementation of Part XI of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. This , R climatology, 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇(𝑡𝑡) , corresponds to the variation to the ensemblearound 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇(𝑡𝑡) means variation ∆(t) was added to the Reyn means projections around projectionsof the ensemble = . IPCC (2013) projects a global increase in ocean acidification for all “Representative Concentration Pathways” (RCP) scenarios, with decreases in mean surface ocean pH by the end of the 21st century in the range of 0.06 - 0.07 (RCP 2.6), 0.14 - 0.15 (RCP 4.5), 0.20 - 0.21 (RCP 6.0) and 0.30 - 0.32 (RCP 8.5). Table 6.2 Decadal catch of tuna in the open ocean from the 1950s of the top 10 countries with the highest landings from 2000 to 2010 Country Japan Annual mean catch (103 t) 1950 – 1959 1960 - 1969 1970 - 1979 1980 - 1989 1990 - 1999 2000 - 2010 1,640 3,929 3,469 5,451 8,246 4,617 53 246 563 1,148 2,764 2,351 South Korea 1 110 1,199 1,954 3,197 2,339 Indonesia 0 124 338 977 2,269 1,945 Spain 9 39 258 717 1,377 1,188 Ecuador 0 0 101 314 727 1,121 86 106 716 955 1,032 1,027 Mexico 8 44 138 742 1,226 917 France 19 171 490 818 1,106 721 971 1,155 1,504 1,500 1,334 689 Taiwan Philippines USA 266 FISHERIES Although requiring open waters, tuna are also caught within the 200 mile (EEZs) of maritime countries, particularly in the Western Central Pacific.